Genetic engineering Beauty or Beast Essays - Biology,

"Genetic engineering: Beauty or Beast?" Genetic engineering is t he deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its genetic material. Some people think that Genetically modified crops shouldn't be allowed, this is because g enetically modified foods are not likely to present health risks to humans but there are many concerns as to the outcome of transgenic effects. A genetically modified food can cause an allergic reaction when it did not before it was modified, since transferring a transgene to a food product may alter the product creating an allergen. Therefore, allergies have increased in the past decade because of the different use of chemicals and the modification of genes. Personally I think that genetically modified crops should be allowed but they should have labels on them so allergens know what they can and cannot eat, without labels people may get allergic reactions or even, in worst cases, death. Should genetic engineering on humans only be allowed to prevent diseases? Many people think that if we use genetic engineering on humans, we can erase/prevent diseases. This in some ways is true, for example, we could get rid of huntington's disease. In other ways, this is false because some genetic diseases actually make you immune to another disease, for example, sufferers of sickle-cell disease are immune to malaria because of some traits in the DNA. In my opinion I think genetic engineering shouldn't be used to prevent diseases because then what if we find a safer and more morally correct cure, then we could have killed thousands of people just to find out that there was a safer way. We don't know that such genetic technology will be used for. We have only been adapted to eat one type of wheat, therefore if they change or genetically develop/change wheat, what will we eat? Humans could probably adapt again but it would take a while and we don't know how much of the human race will be left. But on the other hand it might be useful because some types of wheat have been modified to withstand the cold so that could produce more crops for winter. In the USA, wheat has been modified to make more food in one hectare. This change happened fairly quickly, this could mean that our bodies will have to adapt again. Is this healthy? Personally, I think it could be useful but if our bodies have only been adapted to eat one type of wheat it could raise some risk factors. Do we have the right to make decisions about our children's genotypes? We do but it is morally wrong. If you are pregnant and put in danger by this then you can choose to abort the baby and you can also choose to abort if you are raped but morally this is wrong. If you have the money or the means to take care of a child and it's not putting you or the child in danger then you should just keep the child. Personally I do not think that it is morally right to change your child's characteristics. Parents are supposed to love their children unconditionally, by changing the characteristics you are suggesting otherwise. You should accept anyone for who they are especially if they are your child. Therefore, I do not think that it is right ( in any way ) to make decision or choice about our children's genotypes. -8239122133600 Abbygale Lawson

Economic Value Added Essays

Economic Value Added Essays Economic Value Added Essay Economic Value Added Essay Return on Investment and Economic Value Added This ultimately guides stakeholders to make appropriate decisions based on Information available to them to determine what the organization wants to achieve and how the performance will be measured. Organizations that are large in structure and operations focus has been to ensure shareholders wealth are maximizes which means management, investors and other takeovers require to know the performance of the organization as this will aid them to make appropriate. We will consider the measures put in place both financial and non financial that will enable handlers of organization to have a good evaluation of the performance of the business. 1 Organizational Structures According to Tudor Spencer (2005) who stated that No two organizations are financially managed in an identical way. This is because different organizations have different purpose, operate in different environments, have different histories or Just managed by unique personalities with different references (Tudor Spencer 2005; peg 130). Large organizations are grouped into divisional and non-divisional organizational structures. In dillydallied organization the structure causes a decentralization of decision making process as the central head office creates different divisions managed by divisional managers. This is the opposite in non divisional organization as responsibility for profit lies with the central head office. The divisional manages are given autonomy to determine profit responsibility which falls into an investment, profit or cost centre. Investment centre Investment centers are basically decentralized dollops that a manager of an organization has control and maximum discretion. The manager will determine the level and type of capital investment decision the division will handle, operating decision on product mix, pricing and various production methods for the division. Profit centre Profit centers are divisions that the managers do not have control over investments decision making process In the division. The manager responsibility Is to ensure that profit Is generated from operations on the assets from the head office which the division reports to directly. Cost centre Cost centers are divisions where the managers are only responsible for cost but not profit. 1. 1 Divisional Performance measurement Performance evaluation of dollops can be considered In two aspects;- Return on Economic Value Added (EVA) 1. 12 Return on Investment (ROI) The return on investment (ROI) is a performance measurement mostly used for an investment centre. It is expresses divisional profit as a percentage of the assets employed in the operations of the division. ROI = Net income/lamented capital ROI = [Net income X Sales (Revenue) (Revenue) X Invested capital] ROI= Net refit ratio x Capital turnover The intent of this measure is to evaluate the success of an organization or division by comparing its operating income to its invested capital. The ROI is generally an objective measure used on historic accounting information. This is shown in illustration 1 under Appendix 1 where the return on investment of Company A in Division C is analyses. Advantages of Return on Investment measurement . It can be used to make comparison among divisions with different lines of business and sizes. II. Decisions taken by a division to increase its ROI may increase he overall profitability of the organization. Ill. This measure draws the attention of the divisional manager on the assets employed in the divisions and motivates more investment in assets that an adequate return can be derived on them A division can improve ROI in two ways; The profit margin earned per sales dollar can be increased. The sales revenue generated per dollar of invested capital can be increased (this is known as asset turnover). When a manager is evaluated only on the level of profit with no regard to asset employed the tendency would be to increase assets and therefore increase profit. Interestingly, ROI takes into account size differences across the various divisions. For example, assume the managers of divisions A and B earned $1,000,000 and $800,000 in operating income respectively. An assumed interpretation of these differences in operating income would be that the manager of division A performed better than the manager of division B. This viewpoint may not necessarily be correct because the source of division Ass higher income may be its greater size relative to division B. This problem can be addressed when ROI is used to measure each divisions income relative to the asset base deployed. This standardizes the computation into a ratio while less attention is given to the absolute amount. Limitations of Return on Investment measurement According to Morse, et al, (1996), the main disadvantage of ROI is that it can encourage managers, who are evaluated and rewarded based solely on this measure, to make investment divisions that are in their own best interests, while not being in the best interests of the company as a whole. L. Profit can be manipulated by managers by changing accounting policies or the use of different Judgment as noted that Profit is a matter of opinion, cash flow is a matter of fact II. The use of ROI as performance measure for managers may lead to goal incongruence. Where a divisional manager rejects a potential project although generate a positive net present value (NAP) but ultimately reduces the managers ROI. Ill. The problem with using ROI to reward performance in these situations is that managers are penalized, in terms of financial compensation, for decisions made that lower their ROI while increasing the firms wealth. Accordingly, the managers conduct may lead to companys cost of capital. From the firms perspective this is viewed as dysfunctional decision making. From the managers perspective, the over-reliance on ROI as a performance indicator gives the manager no alternative choice. 1. Economic Value Added (EVA) According to Sahara Kumar (2010), EVA is a measurement of the true economic profit generated by a firm. EVA is also referred to as the financial performance measure that is based on operating income after taxes, the investment in assets required to generate that income, and the cost of the investment in assets (or, weighted average cost of capital). Hansen Owen (1997) referred to the three elements used in calculating EVA as operating income after tax, investment in assets, ND the cost of capital. The formula to measure EVA is: EVA = Operating income after tax (investment in assets x weighted average cost of capital). Use of EVA as a Divisional Performance measure In a decentralized organization, divisions are compared with the central head office. The use of EVA encourages divisional managers to maximize the wealth of their various divisions. The use of EVA would ensure that managers invest only in projects which the returns on the project are above the cost of capital of the organization. The primary strength of EVA is that it provides a measure of wealth reaction that aligns the goals of divisional or plant managers with the goals of the entire company. Disadvantage of EVA Performance measurement Although EVA has advantage over ROI, this measure has four limitations that are presented as follows; Size differences The use of EVA has no control over size differences across divisions according to Hansen Owen (1997). A larger division will tend to have a higher EVA when compared to smaller divisions. While EVA is more effective than ROI at aligning divisional managers goals with corporate goals, it has no control for size differences cross organizational units like ROI. Financial orientation EVA is relies on financial accounting methods of revenue realization and expense recognition. If motivated to do so, managers can manipulate these figures by altering their decision making processes (Horned, et al. , 1997). Managers can manipulate the revenue recognized during an accounting period by selecting which customer orders to fill and which to delay. This is basically to increase current period EVA and an adverse blow to customer satisfaction and retention. Discretionary expenditures can be stopped to increase EVA. Managers ay decide not to replace completely depreciated assets and keep the equipment in its financial record. This action lowers the asset base and ensures that no depreciation expense charges are recognized. Short-term orientation The intent of a performance measurement system should be to match employees effort, creativity, and accomplishments with their compensation. According to Hayes Abernathy (1980), the authors referred in their article that although innovation, the unduly penalize failure, the predictable result of relying too heavily on short-term financial measures a sort of managerial remote control is an environment in which o one feels he or she can afford a failure or even a momentary dip in the bottom line. Results-orientation The financial figures prepared to determine EVA and accumulated at the end of an accounting period do not help to ascertain the main cause(s) of operational inefficiencies in a division. These measures offer limited useful information to people charged with the responsibility of managing business processes. The reports state the obvious that performance had declined but they do not help offer solutions to the non accounting business managers who are responsible for improving the value delivered to customers. 1. 4 Possible Solution to mitigate Short term focus of mangers EVA and other financial measures should be a major performance measurement of the organization, but should be in combination with balanced measures that encompass all the performance attributes critical to long-term success. Kaplan and Norton (1992) created a framework tagged balanced scorecard that integrates four types of performance attributes that are important to long term success in an organization. These attributes are embedded in the customer perspective, the internal business process perspective, the innovation and learning perspective, and the financial respective. The strategic objectives of a company are what determine the specific measures it will include in its scorecard. Once a clear understanding of the firms strategy exists, the process of formulating a balanced scorecard begins by selecting appropriate measures for each of the four perspectives. L. The customer perspective by selecting measures that define success from the customers point of view, such as customer retention rates, on-time delivery percentage, or surveys of customer satisfaction. II. The internal business process perspective focuses on nonofficial assure that reflect how well a firm is translating inputs into outputs that are valued by customers. Cycle time, yield percentage, and quality defect rate are examples of internal business process measures that may be used. Ill. The innovation and learning perspective measures are leading indicators that reflect the likelihood a firm will continue to be world-class competitive in the long run. V. The financial perspective is where measures such as EVA, ROI, revenue growth, and stock price make complete sense. EVA would provide useful insight into the wealth creating ability of a division or organization as a whole. Transfer Pricing in an Organization The important feature of decentralization in large organizations is the creation of responsibility centers (e. G. Cost, profit, or investment centers). The performance of these responsibility centers is measured on the basis of various accounting investment. Transfer price is the notional value at which goods and services are transferred from one division of a company to another division in a decentralized organization. The supplying division will give intermediate goods to the receiving division while the receiving division will sell final product to the external market. According to Dry (2009) he stated that The objective of the receiving division is to subject the intermediate products to further processing before it is sold as a final product in the outside market. The transfer price of the intermediate product represents a cost to the receiving division and a revenue to the supplying division (Dry 2009; peg 326). Purposes of Transfer Pricing There are some major reasons to operate a transfer pricing system:- Appropriate transfer prices will assist to coordinate the production, sales and pricing decisions of the different divisions. Transfer prices enable the company to generate different refit figures for the various divisions which aid to measure the performance of each division separately. -Transfer prices ensures autonomy and authority is maintained in divisions. Transfer prices would allow goal congruence. 2. 1 Methods of Transfer Pricing There are four methods of transfer pricing to be considered; Market Based Transfer Pricing In the presence of competitive and stable external markets, many organizations take the external market price as a benchmark for their internal transfer price. Where a market exists outside the organization for the intermediate product and the market is imitative, the use of market price as the transfer price between divisions would generally lead to optimal decision making. Advantages of Market Based Transfer Price l. There are cost savings on internal transfers compared with external sales. Where significant external buying and selling costs exist then a transfer may be set lower than market price to reflect the cost savings from internal transfers. II. The circumstances may lead to negotiated market prices where the total cost savings are apportioned between the buying and selling divisions. In such circumstances an arbitration procedure may be required but too much central intervention of this nature could undermine the autonomy of the divisions. Disadvantages of Market Based Transfer Price l. Where there is no market for the intermediate product or service being considered. II. Difficulty in obtaining a competitive price even when the market exists. Price is only strictly comparable when all features are identical- quality, delivery, finish, and so on. Ill. Market exists but is not perfectly competitive I. E. The market is affected by the pricing decision of divisional managers. V. Market prices that are available may be considered excessive capacity in the intermediate market that current quotations are well below long run average price. In such circumstances the use of either the current, abnormally low price or the long run normal price may lead to sub-optimal decision making on the part of the supplying divisional management or to loss of motivation and autonomy of the purchasing division. Full Cost based transfer pricing systems are usually used because the conditions for setting ideal market prices most times do not exist. For example there may be no intermediate market or the market which does exist may be imperfect. Where the required information is available, a decision rule that would lead to optimal decisions for the organization as a whole would be to transfer at marginal cost up to the point of transfer, plus any opportunity cost to the organization as a whole. Disadvantages of Full cost Transfer Pricing l. The autonomy of divisions would be affected as motivation to do business with other divisions will not be profitable. II. The cost may include inefficiencies of the selling division which would thus be passed on to the buying division. Accordingly, standard cost, rather than actual costs should be used as the basis of the transfer rice in order not to burden the buying department with the inefficiencies of the supplying division. Cost-plus Mark up Transfer Pricing In this method, the transfers are made at full costs plus a profit mark up. The cost plus will be treated by the buying division as an input variable cost so that external selling price decisions based on cost may not be set at levels which are optimal as far as the firm as a whole is concerned. Disadvantages of cost-plus mark up transfer pricing l. The calculated cost is only accurate at one level of output. II. The validity of any pricing decision base on past costs is questionable. Ill. When transfers are made at full cost plus a profit mark up the selling division receives a certain level of profit rendering genuine performance appraisal difficult. V. When the selling division is inefficient or working at low volume the costs may be unacceptably high as far as the buying division is concerned. Negotiated Transfer Pricing Negotiated transfer pricing has the advantage of a free market in which divisional managers buy and sell from each other in a manner at arms length transactions. However, we may not assume that the outcome of these transfer price negotiations will serve the best interests of the company or shareholders. Advantages of Negotiated Transfer Pricing l. Realistic transfer prices are achieved. II. Goal congruence is promoted among divisions of the organization. Ill. Division autonomy and motivation among the managers is achieved. Disadvantages of l. The transfer price could depend on which divisional manager is the better in bargaining rather than whether the transfer results in profit-maximizing production and sourcing decisions. Where divisional managers fail to reach an agreement on price, even though the transfer is in the best interests of the company, senior management might decide to impose a transfer price. However, senior managements imposition of a transfer price defeats the motivation for using a negotiated transfer price in the first place. Organizations basically would adopt the most appropriate performance measure that would increase the overall objective of the organization. This provides a complete representation of a managers performance and ensures a proper balance between processes and results and the short term versus the long term. The financial measures, such as EVA and ROI recognize that ultimately a company needs to hold its people accountable for generating profits; however, the risk of overemphasized worth-run profits needs to be balanced by incorporating the non financial drivers of long-term financial wealth into the performance measurement and reward system. Devotionals organizations operating in a perfect or imperfect market would always find a way to determine the appropriate transfer pricing method to adopt. The analysis of advantages and disadvantages the different transfer methods are required to achieve the overall objective of the organization.

Analzye a Scene Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Analzye a Scene Assignment - Essay Example s highly qualified and honored general, and nevertheless he is moor, the Duke of Venice names him â€Å"the valiant Moor†, â€Å"valiant Othello† and shows him great respect. And when Brabantio brings charges upon Othello, Duke doubts about Othello’s guilt and gives him an opportunity to clear his name. Here comes Desdemona, introducing herself. From her and Othello reader figures out about their love story. To my mind, it’s also important how Desdemona’s character opens Othello’s one. We see love between these two and how close they are. Also how they care about each other. When Othello hears that he must leave Desdemona because of his general’s duty, he says: In this scene other characters continue to open too. We see that Iago isn’t only double-faced, but also mercenary. He considers Roderigo (who’s unluckily in love with Desdemona) as a purse, packed with money. Iago selfishly plays on Roderigo’s misery. And we see Brabantio – an old-fashion, conservative father, a racist, who is full of prejudices. I’ve also noticed that with this scene begins a historical background of the play. Sailor and messenger appear with controversial information, during senators and duke’s consultation and suddenly there is need of action – all that brings war’s dynamic, a particular kind of pressure on characters and gives audience an understanding how Othello’s natural environment feels

Foreign Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Foreign - Assignment Example costs, distribution, advertising costs and government policies are some of the many factors which mostly impacts on the success of a new business in a new country. Physical and demographic environment such as the population, its distribution and growth impact on a new business in that it determines the capital invested in establishing the business and quantity of production. Economic environment goes a long way in analyzing the existing competitor and the availability of disposable income and patterns of expenditure (Hopkins 13). Cultural and social environment touches on a diverse range of factors. These factors which entail situations like education levels and literacy rates can detriment the success of a business in a foreign country. Legal environment constitutes of government guidelines that foresee how trade is oparationalised on the day to day basis. This may include working hours which may vary from country to country depending on its governing legislations.Lastly, political environment also to a great extent impacts on business growth in a foreign country. Constant political turmoil scuttles security prospects which in the long run lead to eventual failure of the

Why Foreign Investors Need to Look at Political Risks in India Essay

Why Foreign Investors Need to Look at Political Risks in India - Essay Example Some of the emerging markets that have captured the attention of intellectuals around the world are China, India, Brazil, Russia, Mexico, Indonesia and Turkey. Among the above list, China and India are the markets with the greatest potential. These are the markets where companies enter for quick return on investments. â€Å"Even though emerging markets generally do not have the level of market efficiency and strict standards in accounting and securities regulation like advanced economies -- such as the United States, Europe and Japan -- they are most sought after by investors for the prospect of high returns, as they often experience faster economic growth as measured by GDP.† (Rediff Business, 2011) China’s economy is the fastest growing economy in the world at present. Similarly, India’s growth rate is expected to surpass even that of Japan. Studies by various organisations show that the emerging market economies are set to overtake all the G7 economies by 2020 . Such studies do have enough reasons to substantiate their views. This essay will deal with the strategic expansion of IKEA with its Greenfield operations in India. India had recently opened up its market for 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the retail sector. IKEA did not waste even a day after the decision, the company has started framing board room strategies for the Indian market. Company IKEA is undoubtedly the world’s largest furniture retailer. Though furniture is its flagship product, it is also one of the largest home furnishing retailers in the world. The Company which was established in 1943 is headquartered in Leiden, Netherlands. What make IKEA different from the competitors are its modern and unique furniture designs. Moreover, IKEA designs are also eco-friendly compared to the competitors. When it comes to managerial efficiency and vision, IKEA is a benchmark for any businesses. The company gives extreme focus to cost control and product development bec ause of which they are able conquer new markets without much effort. Cost control gives them an edge over the pricing. The continuous product development helps them to keep pace with the changing trends. IKEA has been on a continuous growth path ever since its inception. The story is no different in 2012 too. â€Å"Net profit at the privately-held Swedish firm, known the world over for low-price, self-assembly, flat-packed furniture, rose 10.3 percent to 2.97 billion euros ($3.8 billion) in the year to last August.† (Reuters, 2012) Russia, China and Poland were the countries that contributed more to the overall sales of the company. This huge increase in profit is despite of the hike in raw material prices. Even at a very high raw material cost the company did not pass it on to the customers. It continued supplying products at lower prices as it used to be. The company is planning for about 3 billion euros of investments worldwide in the coming years. IKEA has constituted its product portfolio in such a way that even during a slump in demand due to economic problems, there are products that are focussed on the cost conscious customers. Because of this, IKEA is able to maintain sales and market share even during a slump in the economy. IKEA is now focussed on its strategy for the emerging markets such as China, India and Russia. Investment Unlike many other companies, IKEA wants their business units to be under their sole ownership. They are not ready for partnering with a domestic player which is why they backed out from Indian market entry years before (India permitted only 51% FDI in retail then). They enter the market with a careful study and examination of the market from

Global Migration: Analysis of Stephen Castles (2004)

Global Migration: Analysis of Stephen Castles (2004) Do you agree with Stephen Castles (2004) that migration policies fail? If so, why? If not, why not? Introduction Migration is one of the most important issues in international politics in 21st century. In 2013, there were about 232 million people-3.2 percent of migrants in the world and it has been increasing since 1990 with 154million to 175million until 2000.[1] People cross borders to have better opportunities, to escape poverty and have a better life for their families. Other reasons might be civil wars, conflicts or geographical problems caused by environmental degradation.[2] However, historically, the characteristic of migration began to change since sixteenth century when the European countries started to expand. Moreover form nineteenth century until the First World War, there was a massive movement from European countries to North America.[3] In addition, the number of migrants has been dramatically increasing after 1945. Meanwhile, in Britain, Western Europe, Australia and in North America the political concern about unwanted migrants and migration control issue have become parts of as ‘high politics’ because migration problems were affecting relations between states in 1960s and 1970s.[4] Especially, in 1980s and 1990s there were intensive efforts in controlling migration in many developed countries and they were trying to establish multilateral or supranational regulation system on migration.[5] However, despite these efforts to control migration, due to the increasing number of asylum seekers especially in Western Europe and Australia have built a public perception that migration policies have tendencies to fail.[6] Moreover, in the United States, the number of illegal migrants has been continuously increasing since 1960s and there are about 11millinion who are illegally living in the US today.[7] Then it would be important to question how migration policies work in the international politics today. Stephen Castles argues it is important to examine the elements that drive such migration processes. According to Castles there are about three main reasons that drive migration policy failure; factors arising from the social dynamics of the migratory process, globalization, and North-South relationships and factors within political systems.[8] The purpose of this essay is to evaluate Castles arguments on why migration policies fail. It will first start with explaining Castles key arguments on why migration policies fail, and evaluating his view on policy â€Å"failure†. It will then criticise Castles argument by using Gary Freeman’s argument on immigration politics in liberal democratic countries. Even though Freeman’s argument of migration polices in liberal democratic states is more applicable than Castles argument it will conclude by criticising both Castles and Freemans’ conceptual frameworks on migration policies. Factors Unmake Migration Policy One of the dominant approaches in forming migration policies until these days is neoclassical theory. It has had played important role in forming migration policies and it is indeed important role in migration studies.[9] This theory is focuses on why individuals migrate from one country to another by using comparison of the relative costs and benefits of remaining home or moving.[10] The key assumptions of neoclassical theory is that potential migrants have good knowledge of wage level and job opportunities in destination countries and that economic factor are the most important reasons for potential migrants.[11] It is also often defined as push-pull factors. Push-factors are economic, political hardships in most poor states and developing countries, and pull-factors include comparative benefits in developed countries such as political freedoms, better economic and employment opportunities.[12] The theory sees migrants as market-players â€Å"who have all information for their opt ions and freedom to make rational choices.†[13] Such assumption of the theory however have been criticised that it does not provide proper evidence to explain or prove actual migration movements today and also predicting migration movement for the future. Stephen Castles argues that neoclassical approach to migration enables to achieve appropriate migration policies because it ignores historical experience of migration movements.[14]According to Castles, there are mainly three reasons that fail migration policies today. Castles argues that it is important to understand historical experiences when setting immigration policies because it gives a better understanding to analyse the migration issues.[15] Castles provides a good example how guest workers policy failed in Germany in 1970s. At that time, policy makers recruited guest workers based on temporary residence principles that were formed when they were setting policies for guest workers. Even though employment opportunity declined, those unwanted guest workers never returned to their countries, but rather, brought in their families and eventually ended up staying for the long period and became as minority in Germany.[16] Castles insight is that once migration processes start they will continue and expand as an ongoing social process. He argues that families and their networks play crucial role in affecting potential migration to make a decision to migrate to destination countries. He argues that all migrants are not just individuals who react to market but social beings who are trying to seek for better outcomes for their lives by actively and continuously building migration processes. Moreover, Castles argues that there are structural dependencies in both sending and receiving states. In many developing countries there are tendencies to support encourage people to move to other states in order to reduce unemployment and in receiving countries there are structural tendencies that they need low-skilled labours in order to fulfil jobs that many local not willing to do.[17] Other factor that unmakes migration policy in Castles words is globalization and the division of North and South. Especially, Castl es emphases that globalization and recent North-South relations play important role in understanding international migration flow today. The number of migrants in North has been increasing and it is mainly Castles says because of the huge gap of inequality between North and South. Migration policies will always fail if they properly address reasons and patterns of economic and force migration movement of global inequality.[18] Moreover, Castles insight is that globalization has an inherent structure that widens the gap between and North and South and cultural and technological mean of overcoming this gap. Moreover, because of national logic inherence especially in European Countries, transnational networks would undermine migration control.[19] The last factor that causes policy failure according to Castles is political system. Migration policy process and transnational networks should be related to an analysis how migration policies formed in states and supranational bodies includi ng examining interests, how they are articulated and how political system functions because this is where most policy failure or as he terms â€Å"unintended consequences of policy† could be explained.[20] In addition, Castles says that most migration policies have tendencies to form for short-term for electoral periods and that it should be changed into long-term as migration is a long-term process. In addition, a huge gap of wealth and and power in the emerging global order mean that not all citizens are equal and this might be the basis of a new system of global economic stratification.[21] In Castles argues that â€Å"migration is all about regulating North-south relationships and maintaining inequality.† He argues that migration control will be successful when the gap of inequality will be reduced in the future.[22] Given the Castles three main perspectives on migration failure above, it shows that he focuses on more structural change of social process and on inevitable circumstances caused by those social changes and globalization that produces gap and inequality of North-South. It could be said that Castles argument is broad and general, and as he defined it as a normative sense. His definition â€Å"failure† of migration policies seems to be more â€Å"unintended failure† that caused by those factors noted above. His view on inequality of North-South that driven by globalization seems to have quite sceptical view on liberal ideology and on those receiving liberal states (North) which he believes is one of the main factors to make people to migrate to other countries today. In this sense, Castles argument on inequality of North-South does not give much answer to a question why migration policies fail. His argument is too vague, broad and general that it fails in terms of giving s pecific and persuasive explanation on migration failure. What he argues about policy failure is rather inherent and natural phenomena caused by inequality than more realistic. It is true that the number of migrants from South moving to North is the fastest growing looking at migration trends today as Castles argued.[23] Then it leads to an important question how immigration politics and policies might function in liberal democratic countries. Gap Hypothesis of Migration Policy The term gap hypothesis is when implementations of immigration control policies have different outcomes as they were made in the first place and such gap between stated policies and their results are growing wider.[24] One of the most notable arguments of gap hypothesis is Gary Freeman arguments on how migration policies work in liberal democratic states. Freeman’s perspective is focused on more domestic structure of migration countries.[25] According to Freeman in liberal democratic countries the number of migrants has been continuously growing despite of public negative opinion on migrants. He says that it is because in most liberal democracies immigration policies are never reflected by general public they are ignored and information on migration is quite poorly articulated.[26] It leads to an interesting question who, then distributes and influences in forming migration policy in those countries.[27] According to Freeman there are three factors that affect policy making pr ocedure in liberal democratic countries-individual voters, organized group and state actors. He suggests that in order to have a better understanding on what forces migration polices it is important to understand how public officials interact with organized groups during elections because in democratic states as he says, organized groups have power to control politics of immigration.[28] Organized opinion is more applicable because it reflects the distribution on costs and benefits of immigration and they have much more impact than general public because in politics vote-maximizers find it in their electoral interest to fulfil it.[29] Freeman defines it as â€Å"client-politics†. In client politics, particular or well organized groups have strong interests in working with officials who have responsibilities in making migration policies. Most active and influential actors and beneficiaries are employers who are dependent on unskilled workforce, businesses and ethnic groups are a constituency with important resources that can advocate their interest.[30] Others, who have to bear their costs, do not have such position to influence policy makers and general public who have to compete with jobs, housing, school and government services have difficulties to solve such problems, and face difficulties in influencing immigration policies.[31] Such environment of policy making process in liberal democratic countries leads to a structure where migration clients can actually influence migration policy making process and where immigration policies are influenced by groups who actually benefit from them. Freeman’s argument on how client politics works in liberal democratic is certainly more applicable than Castles view, because it focuses on how migration policies actually function in liberal democratic states. Freeman argues that migration policy making process is influenced by migration politics which involves particular actors distribute in making. Such client politics model in liberal democratic countries shows why immigration policies tendencies of different outcomes. Even though Freeman’s model of client politics more acceptable, still there is a lack of providing clearer framework in order to explain on migration issues today. It is more bias of those classical migrant societies such as United States, Canada and Australia. This also leaves quite sceptical view whether Freeman’s conceptual framework will always work for other emerging migrant countries in the future. Freeman’s insight is that new emerging migration states will follow those liberal democratic states when forming migration policies because migration policy making process and structure of liberal democratic countries. However, Freeman does not pay much attention to asylum seeker and its policies in those liberal democratic states. According to James Hampshire, in order to explain asylum seekers and why states receive them is more a complicated issue because there will be other actors and organizations who are going to be involved.[32] It is then, hard to apply F reeman’s argument of migrant politics. According to United Nations High Commission for Refugees asylum trends report 2012, the United States, France, United Kingdom, Germany and Sweden were the top five receiving states, together accounting for more than 57% of all new asylum claims submitted in 44 industrialized countries.[33] The overall numbers of asylum seekers were about 274,200 in 2012. It clearly shows that Freeman’s framework of does not provide clear explanation of asylum seekers and its policies in migration politics either. Conclusion Stephen Castles argument on why migration policies fail gives a good explanation on how migration is processed and how has been historically changing. He argues that migration should be perceived as a social process that has inherence of changing continuously once migration process starts. Castles argues how globalization and division of North-South affects contemporary migration process, and how the gap of inequality between North-South continuously widens. Migration policy failure might be unintended but because of political system within receiving countries. The problem with Castles argument is that it could be too broad and general to analyse migration policy failure in receiving countries. Freeman’s client politics seems to be more applicable in terms of explaining migration politics, policy failure in liberal democratic states and also in terms of how organized groups are influential and involved in policy making process in those countries. However, Freeman’s argument framework of immigration politics is also problematic because he fails explaining asylum seeker policies which are quite controversial issues these days. Moreover, as noted above, there is quite huge number of asylum seekers and liberal democratic countries are the top five receiving states in the world. Both Castles and Freeman’s argument provide some perusable explanation of migration policies, however, both of them fail in terms of providing clear explanation of complex issues of migration policies today. There are other scholars who have different perspective on how migration politics, however, due to the limits of this essay it was heavily focused on Castles and Freeman view on how migration politics work and why immigration policies fail. Bibliography Castles, S Miller, M (2009) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, Palgrave Macmillan Castles, S (2004) ‘The Factors That Make and Unmake Migration Policies’, International Migration Review, Vol. 38, p.852-884 Castles, S (2004) ‘Why Migration Policies Fail’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.27, pp. 205-227 Cornelius, W. A. (Ed.) (2004) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Stanford University Press, Freeman, G (1995) ‘Modes of Immigration Policies in Liberal Democratic States’, International Migration Review, vol.29, pp.881-901 Hampshire, J (2008) Disembedding Liberalism?: from Givens, T., Leal, D. L. (Eds.), Immigration Policy and Security: US, European, and Commonwealth Perspectives. Routledge Pew Research ‘U.S. Unauthorized Immigration Population Trends, 1990-2012’: (http://www.pewhispanic.org/2013/09/23/unauthorized-trends/#All) (accessed on 23.03.14) Portes, A Borocz, J (1989) ‘Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation’, International Migration Review, vol. 23, pp.606-630 United Nations, Trends in International Migrant Stock: (http://esa.un.org/unmigration/wallchart2013.htm) (accessed on 23.0314) UNCHR ‘Asylum Trends 2012: Levels and Trends in Industrialized Countries’, (http://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/unhcr108.pdf) (accessed on 25.03.14) 1 [1] United Nations, Trends in International Migrant Stock: (http://esa.un.org/unmigration/wallchart2013.htm) (accessed on 23.0314) [2] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) The Age of Migration :International Population Movements in the Modern World, Palgrave Macmillan, p.2 [3] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) p.3 [4] S. Castles(2004) ‘The Factors That Make and Unmake Migration Policies’, International Migration Review, Vol. 38, p.856-857 [5] S. Castles(2004) p.857 [6] S. Castles(2004) p.857 [7] Pew Research ‘U.S. Unauthorized Immigration Population Trends, 1990-2012’: (http://www.pewhispanic.org/2013/09/23/unauthorized-trends/#All) (accessed on 23.03.14) [8] S. Castles(2004)‘Why Migration Policies Fail’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.27, p.208 [9] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) pp.21-22 [10] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) pp.21-22 [11] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) pp.21-22 [12] A. Portes J.Borocz, (1989) ‘Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation’, International Migration Review, vol. 23, p.607 [13] S. Castles M. Miller (2009) p.23 [14] S. Castles(2004) p.208 [15] S. Castles(2004)‘Why Migration Policies Fail’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol.27, p.208-209 [16] S. Castles (2004) p.208, Cornelius, W. A. (Ed.) (2004) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Stanford University Press, pp.225-230 [17] S. Castles (2004) ‘The Factors That Make and Unmake Migration Policies’, International Migration Review, vol. 38, pp.860-861 [18] S. Castles(2004) p.223 [19] S. Castles(2004) pp. 210-212 [20] S. Castles(2004) p.223 [21] S. Castles(2004) p.223 [22] S. Castles(2004) pp. 212-223 [23] S. Castles(2004) p.210 [24] Cornelius, W. A. (Ed.) (2004) pp.4-5 [25] J. Hampshire (2008) Disembedding Liberalism?: from Givens, T., Leal, D. L. (Eds.), Immigration Policy and Security: US, European, and Commonwealth Perspectives. Routledge, pp.110-111 [26] G. Freeman(1995) ‘Modes of Immigration Policies in Liberal Democratic States’, International Migration Review, vol.29, pp.882-883 [27] G. Freeman(1995) p.883 [28] G. Freeman(1995) p.885 [29] G. Freeman(1995) p.886 [30] J. Hampshire (2008) p.112 [31] G. Freeman(1995) p.885 [32] J. Hampshire (2008) pp.112-113 [33] UNCHR ‘Asylum Trends 2012: Levels and Trends in Industrialized Countries’ (http://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/unhcr108.pdf) (accessed on 25.03.14) Roy Lichtenstein: Art Style Analysis Roy Lichtenstein: Art Style Analysis A work is created when it is prepared over a period of time, the portion of it that has been fixed at any particular time constitutes the work as of that time, and where the work has been prepared in different versions, each version constitutes a separate. (copyright.gov). A derivative work is a work based upon one or more preexisting works art reproduction in which a work may be recast, transformed, or adapted or other modifications, which, as a whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a derivative work. (copyright.gov). Looking at the many pieces of Roy Lichtensteins art and researching the terms created and derivative, he is seen to be controversial because many people consider him to be a copy cat artist. At the time Lichtenstein was producing his prints in question there were copyright laws in effect but it seems that they were never put into action. The Boston Globe produced a story about Lichtenstein titled Roy Lichtenstein Creator or Copy Cat? Deconstructing Roy Li chtenstein  © 2000 David Barsaolu MFA. That article is not the first of its kind; the first article was produced January 31, 1964 by Life magazine titled, Is He the Worst Artist in America? After reading these articles and looking at the prints I noticed that they do have a very close resemblance to what the United States copy right laws prohibit. I happen to think not but I am sure that as there are as many admires of his art and talent as there are probably just as many who disagree with my opinion. I find it quite intriguing that not one of the artists has sued Mr. Lichtenstein for monetary reimbursement or even document to settle out of court. Maybe at that time there was some sort of loop holes for creative art that kept copyright laws at bay. Whatever the reason Roy has become very well known and made a great living with his art. The 1940s were the beginning of Lichtensteins career as an artist with is first drawing class in 1941 at Ohio State University prior to that he graduated from Franklin, then studied anatomical drawing at the Art Students League and participated in a few exhibitions, then he was drafted in to the U.S. Army in 1943 and sketched some works of soldiers and landscapes. His father becomes ill and dies January of 1946 dies. Roy is discharged from the Army late January. Lichtenstein spends theses 10 years getting formal training and taking part in many exhibitions. June 12, 1949 Roy marries Isabel Wilson. The 1950 was quite a year for getting established and becoming a known artist for Roy, he held many jobs from 1951-1957 some of them lasting only a few months, and his first son is born in 1954. Roy continues to be seen at exhibitions but at more popular venues with better known artists. In 1956 Roy creates his first photo pop work by lithograph Ten Dollar Bill and in March his second son i s born. In 1957 Roy begins to use abstract expression style in his paintings familiar work is Donald Duck. Abstract paintings are shown for the first time in June 1959. January 1961 he exhibits abstract paintings made with a torn bed sheet by applying paint to them. Then later that summer Look Mickey is the first of a panel from a comic strip that is pained with Benday dots made from a dog brush dipped in paint, you can see he also uses his first balloon dialogue. Roy then creates his first consumer paintings for advertisers, tries new techniques tondo painting, diptych painting, and blue with white to duplicate reproductions. 1961 proved to be a great year in October Roy received a $400.00 a month stipend from the Leo Castelli Gallery and has a trial separation from his wife. In 1962 he begins to use turpentine soluble acrylic paint but did not stray away from oil paint for the simulated Benday dots. Early summer of 1962 Roys pen drawings are shown for the first time and his consum er goods and comic strip art is shown early fall on the west coast in a gallery. In 1963 Roy pained his first large scale work and it was commissioned by Philip Johnson to create a mural, for the New York State Pavilion at the 1964 Worlds Fair in Flushing Meadows, New York. Roys first European exhibition was later that summer. Roy divorces his wife in 1965 and she take custody of the kids he then creates a series of ceramic heads with co artist Hui Ka Kwong, experiments with modern motif and that autumn stops working with ceramics. In 1966 Roy stops putting words on his canvas, in April Roy illustrates the cover of Newsweek magazine the entire edition is devoted to POP Art, and in the autumn 1967 he collaborates to create a series of sculptures made of brass, tinted glass, marble and other materials. In 1968 he creates is first repeated design modular paintings and stretcher frame paintings, Time magazine cover features Kennedy painting and a Rendering of a Gun at the end of the yea r he married Dorothy Herzka. In Osaka, Japan seascape films are shown in 1970 that Roy filmed and he sold painting #6 for $75,000.00 the highest paid for work of art at that time for any living artist. In 1971 Mirrors was shown publicly, his films of seascapes were shown, and in ducted in to the American Academy of Arts and Science in Boston.1973 trompe-loeil and Cubist Still Lifes are used with faux wood grain pattern for the first time, 1974 begins influenced work by Italian Futurism, and entablatures series using metallic colors mixing sand with paint to highlight surface texture. 1975 starts a series influenced by Purists Artists, 1976 paints Office Still Lifes, Completes Entablature Paintings, creates many self-portraits in Futurist style, and Warhol creates a silkscreen Lichtenstein. 1977 Roy starts a series based on Surrealists artists, Skowhegan Medal for Painting is awarded, and BMW commissions Roy to design outside of race car later driven in the year at Le Mans. In 1980 R oy is awarded honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Southampton College in New York and in 1980 paintings and sculpture and from 1970s and 80s are touring America, Europe and Japan and 1989 his painting Torpedo.Los! sold for 5.5 million joining two other living artists whose work brings in as much. In 1990 Roy begins and Interior series painted with sponges that are shown in 1991, commissioned in 1992 for a 64 foot high sculpture for the Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. In 1993 Roy contributes a cover image for Fredrick Tutens book, creates two giant pieces of art, Grrrrrrrrrr! appears on the front of ARTnews, and begins a series of nude female works. April 30, 1997 the last interview ever given by Roy, Singapore Brushstroke is the last constructed artwork installed, and September 29, Roy Lichtenstein dies. I chose three pieces of work from three different time periods in Roys life as a focus. Each piece is from a period that is important how he creates his work and how he develops his style. Washington Crossing the Delaware 1 is oil on canvas 26*32 in 1951, is a form of abstract expressionist and is painted very child like. George Washings is what catches your eye at the front of the boat. All the lines are simple and the people are drawn simple and the colors are dark. The BMW 320i that was designed for the Le Mans 24-hour race in 1977 was clearly a car that had already seen what was on the road ahead by looking at the sun shining and the stretches of road on it. You see his style of the comic strip on it with the long lines suggesting super speed and his famous Benday dots on the design. Last I chose the Barcelona Head 1992 as the last to show that no matter what the media he uses and what he does that since he has developed his style he continues with consistency. The sculpture was was done in the spirit of the Catalan architect Antonio Gaudi and placed on the rebuilt water front. What I have not touched on is that Roy is considered controversial because many of his works of art are out right copy cats and that he was never accused by the original artist but was later confronted by articles about his work. I dont have a opinion about this and not much to say on the matter but it was his early practice to copy Picassos work also. I perceive it of his style and I do know that what he has created on his own is very original and wonderful to admire and pleasing to the eye at least for me Sources used Roy Lichtenstein Creator or Copy Cat? Deconstructing Roy Lichtenstein. David Barsaolu MFA. 2000. January 28, 2010. http://www.flickr.com/photos/deconstructingroylichtenstein/395941200/. www.HYPERLINK http://www.copyright.gov/title17. January 28copyright.govHYPERLINK http://www.copyright.gov/title17. January 28/title17. January 28, 2010. http://www.image-duplicator.com/main.php?decade=80. January 29, 2010. Lawrence, Alloway, Roy Lichtenstein, Modern Master Series Vol I, Cross River Press LTD, 1983.

Incest Essay -- essays research papers

Incest Incest is one of the most interesting taboos of our time. The definition of incest is a highly controversial topic. Yet, the definition of incest is one of the most important definitions for the people involved, though the law's and psychologists' meanings are not much the same. Incest needs to be similarly defined for the incestuous parties, both by the law and by psychologists. The definition of incest should be determined by the cases of incest. The people who commit incest, and the types of incest should be considered when making this definition for the law. Why incest occurs has a great deal to do with the people and the types of incest. With the definition dissimilar between the law and psychologists, it is very difficult for the involved to do anything about it. The definition is both stated as wrong by law and by most religious morals. According to psychologists, incest is defined as A- any intimate physical contact that is sexually arousing between non-married members of a family." (Justice, pg 25) What this is interpreted as is that sexual intercourse does not need to occur for a situation to be considered incestuous. Stroking, fondling, or even intimately kissing can be considered incest. This is not all true for the law's definition. In Georgia, incest is defined as any sexual intercourse between known relatives, by blood or by marriage, (meaning a step-parent and step-child.) Incest laws basically exist to prohibit marriage or inbreeding between family members, and the sentences are almost never carried out. (Kosof, pg 53) So incest is stated as wrong, but not enforced. The Bible states that incest is wrong, just as the law does. ACursed be he who has relations with his father's wife... Cursed be he who has relations with his sister or half-sister!" (Deu 27:20,22.) Therefore, the definition can be altered to fit the needs of the definer. The different forms of incest are as follows: father-daughter, mother- son, brother-sister, and father-son. Conditions of incest don't always involve intercourse, but still hurt the included. So, the conditions should help to define the firm meaning. "But surely at fourteen, I should have been capable of escaping..." (Armstrong, pg 7) Father-daughter is the most common form of incest. Three-fourths of all reported cases usually involve dad and his oldest daughter. It is usually non-... ...ween mother and father. Mom either denies dad sex, there is a major life crisis, or opportunity knocks. The opportunity for incest occurs when mother is gone all the time and so the daughter assumes the role of the mother. When this happens, there is a need for treatment. This is when the definition of incest is most important. The children are very scared and need confidence. If he/she tells a psychologist or teacher, that person is required by law to tell the authorities. (Kosof, pg 53) When the authorities are contacted, the definition comes into play. The child wants to feel safe, and if their definition of incest doesn't live up to the law's, then the charges could be dropped and the child gets into more problems with incest. Therefore, the background of the incest is very important to the law's definition. By the people involved, the form, and why it occurs are critical to helping the child out when defining the term. The definition of incest by the law should be closer to the definition of psychologists in order to help out the family. AIt is evident that we still know very little about how to treat the sexual offender and the abused child effectively." (Kempe, pg 109)